Batteries were invented in 1800, but their complex chemical processes are still being explored and improved. While there are several types of batteries, at its essence a battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electric energy.

At the intersection between quantum mechanics and computer and information science lies at quantum information science (QIS). QIS seeks to understand how information is processed and transmitted using quantum mechanical principles. It is the merger of quantum mechanics and information and computation theory. QIS comprises four major areas: quantum computing, quantum communication, quantum sensing, and quantum foundational science.

Export controls are U.S. laws and regulations that govern the shipment, transmission, or transfer of sensitive equipment, information, and software to foreign countries, persons, or entities. Export controls exist to protect the national security and foreign policy interests of the United States. These laws and regulations work to achieve adequate oversight on the transfer and use of the products and materials required for developing proliferation-sensitive parts of the nuclear fuel cycle.